Key factors and developmental directions with regard to metal additive manufacturing
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摘要: 金屬增材制造技術是一種短流程、近終形的新型材料成形技術.在金屬增材制造技術中, 設備是載體, 材料是關鍵, 工藝是基礎, 三者是影響金屬增材制造技術發展的關鍵因素.本文通過對具有代表性的金屬增材制造技術的特點進行總結, 分析了設備、材料和工藝之間的關系以及三者在金屬增材制造技術中的重要作用; 綜述了金屬增材制造設備的原料供給系統、成形系統和控制系統的研究現狀; 總結了金屬增材制造材料中鈦合金、鎳合金、鋁合金和鋼鐵材料的典型組織特點和力學性能; 論述了金屬增材制造工藝參數對殘余應力、孔洞、精度和組織的影響; 指出了目前金屬增材制造技術在設備方面存在設備成本高、產品成形尺寸受限、成形效率低等問題, 在材料方面存在生產成本高、適用性差等問題, 在工藝方面存在參數匹配困難、熱積累嚴重等問題; 從降低設備和材料成本、擴大產品成形尺寸范圍、提高產品精度和成形效率、拓展材料種類和適用范圍、減少工藝參數匹配難度、提升產品質量及綜合性能、開發金屬增材制造新技術方面展望了金屬增材制造技術的發展方向.Abstract: Metal additive manufacturing is a new type of material-forming technology characterized by its short process and near net shape. Equipment, material and process are critical factors which serve as the supporter, key, and foundation respectively in terms of the development of this technology. In this paper, the characteristics of the equipment, material, and process of the different representative technologies were summarized. The relations among metal additive manufacturing equipment, manufacturing material, and manufacturing process as well as their roles in the metal additive manufacturing technology were analyzed. The research status of the raw material supply system, forming system, and control system were reviewed. The typical microstructure and mechanical properties of metal additive manufacturing materials, such as titanium alloy, nickel alloy, aluminum alloy, and steel, were summarized. The effects of the manufacturing process parameters on residual stress, porosity, accuracy, and microstructure were discussed. Problems associated with the manufacturing equipment, such as high cost, limited forming size, and low forming efficiency were discussed along with the problems associated with the material, such as high production cost and poor applicability. Furthermore, problems associated with the metal additive manufacturing process, such as difficult matching of process parameters and severe thermal accumulation, were elaborated as well. Future developmental goals in metal additive manufacturing include: (a) reducing the cost of manufacturing equipment and material, (b) expanding the range of product forming size, (c) improving the product printing accuracy and forming efficiency, (d) expanding the types and application scope of metal additive manufacturing material, (e) reducing the difficulty in the matching of process parameters, (f) improving product quality and comprehensive performance, and (g) developing new types of metal additive manufacturing technologies.
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圖 2 設備、材料和工藝與金屬增材制造技術發展之間的關系
Figure 2. Relations among the equipment, material, process, and the development of metal additive manufacturing technology
圖 10 不同激光脈沖周期和基板移動速度下樣品二維垂直應力分布圖[65]. (a) 80 ms, 14.0 mm ·s-1; (b) 60 ms, 10.5 mm ·s-1; (c) 40 ms, 7.0 mm ·s-1
Figure 10. 2D vertical stress distribution diagram of samples at different laser pulse lengths and substrate moving speeds[65]: (a) 80 ms, 14.0 mm ·s-1; (b) 60 ms, 10.5 mm ·s-1; (c) 40 ms, 7.0 mm ·s-1
圖 12 不同噴射頻率下垂直柱外觀形貌及內部組織[95]. (a) 1 Hz金相組織; (b) 1 Hz掃描電鏡背散射; (c) 3 Hz金相組織; (d) 3 Hz掃描電鏡背散射; (e) 7 Hz金相組織; (f) 7 Hz掃描電鏡背散射
Figure 12. Profiles and microstructures of the columns with varied ejection frequencies[95]: (a) metallographic morphology for 1 Hz; (b) BSE image for 1 Hz; (c) metallographic morphology for 3 Hz; (d) BSE image for 3 Hz; (e) metallographic morphology for 7 Hz; (f) BSE image for 7 Hz
圖 13 金屬液流快冷增材制造技術原理圖
Figure 13. Schematic diagram of liquid metal flow rapid cooling additive manufacturing
表 1 各金屬增材制造技術的設備、材料和工藝的特點
Table 1. Characteristics of equipment, material, and process for different metal additive manufacturing technologies
技術名稱 誕生年代 設備特點 材料特點 工藝特點 參考文獻 激光選區燒結 1986 熱源為激光器，激光功率和光斑直徑均較小，采用振鏡使激光束運動 高、低熔點混合的高形狀要求粉材，預先鋪設在基板上 通過熔化低熔點粉材粘合高熔點粉材，層厚及掃描間距較小，需通過復雜后處理提高產品致密度 [10-12] 微滴噴射 1993 熱源為電阻絲或感應線圈，噴嘴或基板做機械運動 材料無特殊形狀要求，熔化后以金屬熔體的形式供料 成形過程中熱源不熔化已沉積層，以微滴形式成形，層厚及掃描間距較小，需后續加工提高產品精度 [13-15] 激光選區熔化 1995 熱源為激光器，激光功率較大，光斑直徑較小，采用振鏡使光束運動 單一種類高形狀要求粉材，預先鋪設在基板上 金屬粉材先于已沉積層熔化，層厚及掃描間距較小，無需復雜后處理 [16-17] 激光工程化凈成形 1995 熱源為激光器，激光功率和光斑直徑大，激光器或基板做機械運動 一種或多種低形狀要求粉材，成形過程中輸送至成形區域 金屬粉材與已沉積層一起熔化，層厚及掃描間距大，需后續加工提高產品精度 [18-19] 金屬電弧增材制造 1998 熱源為電弧，能量輸入較高，焊槍或基板做機械運動 低形狀要求線材，成形過程中輸送至成形區域 金屬線材與已沉積層一起熔化，層厚及掃描間距大，需后續加工提高產品精度 [20] 電子束選區熔化 2000 熱源為電子束，功率及束斑直徑大，能量利用率高，采用偏轉線圈使電子束運動 單一種類低形狀要求粉材，預先鋪設在基板上 在高成形環境溫度下，金屬粉材先于已沉積層熔化，層厚及掃描間距較大，需后續加工提高產品精度 [21-22] 金屬熔融沉積 2002 熱源為電阻絲或感應線圈，噴嘴或基板做機械運動 低熔點高形狀要求線材，熔化后以半固態的形式供料 成形過程中熱源不熔化已沉積層，以連續的半固態形式成形，層厚及掃描間距較大，需復雜后處理提高產品精度和結合強度 [23-24] 電子束熔絲沉積 2003 熱源為電子束，功率及束斑直徑大，基板做機械運動 低形狀要求線材，成形過程中輸送至成形區域 金屬線材與已沉積層一起熔化，層厚及掃描間距大，需后續加工提高產品精度 [25-27] 
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表 2 不同金屬增材制造技術設備的典型參數及代表性制造單位[2-3, 31-37]
Table 2. Typical parameters and manufacturing units of equipment for different metal additive manufacturing technologies[2-3, 31-37]
設備名稱 氣氛要求 熱源參數 運動參數 成形尺寸(長×寬×高)/(mm×mm×mm) 成形效率/(cm3·h-1) 代表性制造單位 激光選區燒結 惰性氣體保護，氧體積分數≤0.01% CO2激光器，功率10~200 W 激光水平運動速度≤8 m·s-1 ≤450×450×500 ≤100 EOS 微滴噴射 真空/惰性氣體保護 電阻/感應加熱 基板水平機械運動速度≤10 cm·min-1，微滴沉積頻率≤10 Hz — ≤50 西北工業大學 激光選區熔化 惰性氣體保護，氧體積分數≤0.01% 一個或多個Yb-fiber激光器，功率50~1000 W，光斑直徑50~200 μm 激光水平運動速度≤15 m·s-1 ≤800×400×500 ≤100 Fraunhofer ILT，Concept Laser，SLM Solutions，鉑力特 激光工程化凈成形 惰性氣體保護，氧體積分數≤0.01% Yb-fiber/Nd-YAG/CO2激光器，功率0.5~10 kW，光斑直徑0.3~7 mm 激光器或基板做機械3~6軸運動，水平機械運動速度≤800 cm·min-1 ≤3000×3000×6000 ≤300 InssTek，Optomec 金屬電弧增材制造 惰性氣體保護 鎢極氬弧/熔化極氬弧/等離子弧，電流90~300 A 焊槍或基板水平機械運動速度≤100 cm·min-1 — ≤900 Cranfield University，哈爾濱工業大學 電子束選區熔化 真空環境，真空度≤10-2 Pa 電子束，功率1~7 kW，束斑直徑100~400 μm 電子束水平運動速度≤8000 m·s-1 ≤200×200×380 ≤200 Arcam AB 金屬熔融沉積 大氣環境 電阻加熱 基板水平機械運動速度≤60 cm·min-1 — — UTEP 電子束熔絲沉積 真空環境，真空度≤10-2 Pa 電子束，功率 < 45 kW，束斑直徑3~5 mm 基板運動，速度≤200 cm·min-1 ≤5791×1219×1219 ≤1000 Efesto
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表 3 不同金屬增材制造技術的主要材料種類、材料形狀與質量要求以及材料典型制備方法
Table 3. Material type, material shape, material quality requirements, and typical material preparation methods for different metal additive manufacturing technologies
技術名稱 主要材料種類 材料形狀與質量要求 材料典型制備方法 參考文獻 激光選區燒結 Cu-SCuP、Ni-Sn、Fe-Sn、碳鋼-尼龍 球形粉材，球形度>0.8，氧體積分數 < 0.08%，流動性(流過50 g粉末所需時間)>10 s，平均粒徑15~150 μm 氣霧化法制粉，等離子旋轉電極霧化法制粉 [60-62] 微滴噴射 錫合金、鋁合金 原料形狀無特殊要求 — [14, 63] 激光選區熔化 Ti-6Al-4V、AlSi10Mg、316L不銹鋼、Inconel 718、CoCrMo 球形粉材，球形度>0.7，氧體積分數 < 0.08%，流動性>10 s，平均粒徑15~53 μm 氣霧化法制粉，等離子旋轉電極霧化法制粉，水霧化制粉 [2, 7, 64] 激光工程化凈成形 Ti-6Al-4V、Inconel 718、316L不銹鋼 球形粉材/線材，粉材平均粒徑50~200 μm，線材平均直徑0.4~2 mm — [65-68] 金屬電弧增材制造 Ti-6Al-4V、鋁合金、316L不銹鋼 線材，平均直徑1~4 mm — [69-71] 電子束選區熔化 Ti-Al、Ti-6Al-4V、316L不銹鋼、Cu 球形粉材，氧體積分數 < 0.08%，平均粒徑30~106 μm 氣霧化法制粉，等離子旋轉電極霧化法制粉，氫化-脫氫法制粉 [72-74] 金屬熔融沉積 錫合金 線材，直徑1.75 mm±0.02 mm — [75] 電子束熔絲沉積 鈦合金、316L不銹鋼 線材，平均直徑0.8~1.2 mm — [76]
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表 4 不同技術制備的Ti-6Al-4V的典型性能對比
Table 4. Comparison of typical mechanical properties of Ti-6Al-4V fabricated by different technologies
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表 5 不同技術制備的Inconel 718的典型性能對比
Table 5. Comparison of typical mechanical properties of Inconel 718 fabricated by different technologies
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表 6 不同技術制備的316L不銹鋼的典型性能對比
Table 6. Comparison of typical mechanical properties of 316L stainless steel fabricated by different technologies
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表 7 不同金屬增材制造技術的典型工藝參數
Table 7. Typical process parameters for different metal additive manufacturing technologies
技術名稱 冷卻速度/(K·s-1) 層厚/mm 掃描間距/mm 表面粗糙度/μm 參考文獻 激光選區燒結 — 0.02~0.25 0.05~0.5 10~60 [104-105] 微滴噴射 10~103 0.1~1 0.15~1 15~100 [14, 46] 激光選區熔化 103~108 0.02~0.15 0.05~0.2 10~50 [106-108] 激光工程化凈成形 < 104 0.1~1.5 0.5~2 60~150 [2, 31] 金屬電弧增材制造 — 0.2~2.5 0.5~3 100~500 [109-110] 電子束選區熔化 103~104 0.1~0.5 0.1~1 25~80 [111-112] 金屬熔融沉積 — 0.5~1 1~1.5 — [24] 電子束熔絲沉積 20~500 1~3 2~5 — [113]
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